A - Alpha, the first letter of the Greek alphabet, as Omega is the last. These letters occur in the text of Rev. 1:8,11; 21:6; 22:13, and are represented by "Alpha" and "Omega" respectively (omitted in R.V., 1:11). They mean "the first and last." (Comp. Heb. 12:2; Isa. 41:4; 44:6; Rev. 1:11,17; 2:8.) In the symbols of the early Christian Church these two letters are frequently combined with the cross or with Christ's monogram to denote his divinity.
When the ransomed tribes fought their first battle with Amalek in Rephidim,
Moses stood on a hill overlooking the scene of the conflict with the rod of God
in his outstretched hand. On this occasion he was attended by Aaron and Hur,
his sister's husband, who held up his wearied hands till Joshua and the chosen
warriors of Israel gained the victory (17:8-13).
Afterwards, when encamped before Sinai, and when Moses at the command of God
ascended the mount to receive the tables of the law, Aaron and his two sons,
Nadab and Abihu, along with seventy of the elders of Israel, were permitted to
accompany him part of the way, and to behold afar off the manifestation of the
glory of Israel's God (Ex. 19:24; 24:9-11). While Moses remained on the
mountain with God, Aaron returned unto the people; and yielding through fear,
or ignorance, or instability of character, to their clamour, made unto them a
golden calf, and set it up as an object of worship (Ex. 32:4; Ps. 106:19). On
the return of Moses to the camp, Aaron was sternly rebuked by him for the part
he had acted in this matter; but he interceded for him before God, who forgave
his sin (Deut. 9:20).
On the mount, Moses received instructions regarding the system of worship which
was to be set up among the people; and in accordance therewith Aaron and his
sons were consecrated to the priest's office (Lev. 8; 9). Aaron, as high
priest, held henceforth the prominent place appertaining to that office.
When Israel had reached Hazeroth, in "the wilderness of Paran," Aaron
joined with his sister Miriam in murmuring against Moses, "because of the
Ethiopian woman whom he had married," probably after the death of
Zipporah. But the Lord vindicated his servant Moses, and punished Miriam with
leprosy (Num. 12). Aaron acknowledged his own and his sister's guilt, and at
the intercession of Moses they were forgiven.
Twenty years after this, when the children of Israel were encamped in the
wilderness of Paran, Korah, Dathan, and Abiram conspired against Aaron and his
sons; but a fearful judgment from God fell upon them, and they were destroyed,
and the next day thousands of the people also perished by a fierce pestilence,
the ravages of which were only stayed by the interposition of Aaron (Num. 16).
That there might be further evidence of the divine appointment of Aaron to the
priestly office, the chiefs of the tribes were each required to bring to Moses
a rod bearing on it the name of his tribe. And these, along with the rod of
Aaron for the tribe of Levi, were laid up overnight in the tabernacle, and in
the morning it was found that while the other rods remained unchanged, that of
Aaron "for the house of Levi" budded, blossomed, and yielded almonds
(Num. 17:1-10). This rod was afterwards preserved in the tabernacle (Heb. 9:4)
as a memorial of the divine attestation of his appointment to the priesthood.
Aaron was implicated in the sin of his brother at Meribah (Num. 20:8-13), and
on that account was not permitted to enter the Promised Land. When the tribes
arrived at Mount Hor, "in the edge of the land of Edom," at the
command of God Moses led Aaron and his son Eleazar to the top of that mountain,
in the sight of all the people. There he stripped Aaron of his priestly
vestments, and put them upon Eleazar; and there Aaron died on the top of the
mount, being 123 years old (Num. 20:23-29. Comp. Deut. 10:6; 32:50), and was
"gathered unto his people." The people, "even all the house of
Israel," mourned for him thirty days. Of Aaron's sons two survived him,
Eleazar, whose family held the high-priesthood till the time of Eli; and
Ithamar, in whose family, beginning with Eli, the high-priesthood was held till
the time of Solomon. Aaron's other two sons had been struck dead (Lev. 10:1,2)
for the daring impiety of offering "strange fire" on the alter of
incense.
The Arabs still show with veneration the traditionary site of Aaron's grave on
one of the two summits of Mount Hor, which is marked by a Mohammedan chapel.
His name is mentioned in the Koran, and there are found in the writings of the
rabbins many fabulous stories regarding him.
He was the first anointed priest. His descendants, "the house of
Aaron," constituted the priesthood in general. In the time of David they
were very numerous (1 Chr. 12:27). The other branches of the tribe of Levi held
subordinate positions in connection with the sacred office. Aaron was a type of
Christ in his official character as the high priest. His priesthood was a
"shadow of heavenly things," and was intended to lead the people of
Israel to look forward to the time when "another priest" would arise
"after the order of Melchizedek" (Heb. 6:20). (See MOSES.)
Abagtha - one of the seven eunuchs in Ahasuerus's court (Esther 1:10; 2:21).
(1.) The father of Adoniram, whom Solomon set over the tribute (1 Kings 4:6); i.e., the forced labour (R.V., "levy").
(2.) A Levite of the family of Jeduthun (Neh. 11:17), also called Obadiah (1 Chr. 9:16).
Abdeel - servant of God, (Jer. 36:26), the father of Shelemiah.
(1.) 1 Chr. 6:44.
(2.) 2 Chr. 29:12.
(3.) Ezra 10:26.
Abdiel - servant of God, (1 Chr. 5:15), a Gadite chief.
(1.) The son of Hillel, a Pirathonite, the tenth judge of Israel (Judg. 12:13-15). He is probably the Bedan of 1 Sam. 12:11.
(2.) The first-born of Gibeon of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:30; 9:36).
(3.) The son of Micah, one of those whom Josiah sent to the prophetess Huldah to ascertain from her the meaning of the recently discovered book of the law (2 Chr. 34:20). He is called Achbor in 2 Kings 22:12.
(4.) One of the "sons" of Shashak (1 Chr. 8:23).
This is the name also of a Levitical town of the Gershonites, in the tribe of Asher (Josh. 21:30; 1 Chr. 6:74). The ruins of Abdeh, some 8 miles north-east of Accho, probably mark its site.
Abel (Heb. 'abhel), lamentation (1 Sam. 6:18), the name given to the great
stone in Joshua's field whereon the ark was "set down." The Revised
Version, however, following the Targum and the LXX., reads in the Hebrew text 'ebhen
(= a stone), and accordingly translates "unto the great stone, whereon
they set down the ark." This reading is to be preferred.
Abel (Heb. 'abhel), a grassy place, a meadow. This word enters into the
composition of the following words:
Abidan - father of judgment; judge, head of the tribe of Benjamin at the Exodus (Num. 1:11; 2:22).
Abieezer - father of help; i.e., "helpful."
(1.) The second of the three sons of Hammoleketh, the sister of Gilead. He was the grandson of Manasseh (1 Chr. 7:18). From his family Gideon sprang (Josh. 17:2; comp. Judg. 6:34; 8:2). He was also called Jeezer (Num. 26:30).
(2.) One of David's thirty warriors (2 Sam. 23:27; comp. 1 Chr. 27:12).
(3.) The prince of the tribe of Dan at the Exodus (Num. 1:12).
Abiel - father (i.e., "possessor") of God = "pious."
(1.)The son of Zeror and father of Ner, who was the grandfather of Saul (1 Sam. 14:51; 1 Chr. 8:33; 9:39). In 1 Sam. 9:1, he is called the "father," probably meaning the grandfather, of Kish.
(2.) An Arbathite, one of David's warriors (1 Chr. 11:32); called also Abi-albon (2 Sam. 23:31).
Abiezrite - father of help, a descendant of Abiezer (Judg. 6:11,24; 8:32).
Abigail - father (i.e., "leader") of the dance, or "of joy."
(1.) The sister of David, and wife of Jether an Ishmaelite (1 Chr. 2:16,17). She was the mother of Amasa (2 Sam. 17:25).
(2.) The wife of the churlish Nabal, who dwelt in the district of Carmel (1 Sam. 25:3). She showed great prudence and delicate management at a critical period of her husband's life. She was "a woman of good understanding, and of a beautiful countenance." After Nabal's death she became the wife of David (1 Sam. 25:14-42), and was his companion in all his future fortunes (1 Sam. 27:3; 30:5; 2 Sam. 2:2). By her David had a son called Chileab (2 Sam. 3:3), elsewhere called Daniel (1 Chr. 3:1).
(1.) Num. 3:35.
(2.) 1 Chr. 2:29.
(3.) 1 Chr. 5:14.
(4.) The second wife of King Rehoboam (2 Chr. 11:18), a descendant of Eliab, David's eldest brother.
(5.) The father of Esther and uncle of Mordecai (Esther 2:15).
Abihud - father (i.e., "possessor") of renown.
(1.) One of the sons of Bela, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:3); called also Ahihud (ver. 7).
(2.) A descendant of Zerubbabel and father of Eliakim (Matt. 1:13, "Abiud"); called also Juda (Luke 3:26), and Obadiah (1 Chr. 3:21).
Abijah - father (i.e., "possessor or worshipper") of Jehovah.
(1.) 1 Chr. 7:8.
(2.) 1 Chr. 2:24.
(3.) The second son of Samuel (1 Sam. 8:2; 1 Chr. 6:28). His conduct, along with that of his brother, as a judge in Beer-sheba, to which office his father had appointed him, led to popular discontent, and ultimately provoked the people to demand a royal form of government.
(4.) A descendant of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, a chief of one of the twenty-four orders into which the priesthood was divided by David (1 Chr. 24:10). The order of Abijah was one of those which did not return from the Captivity (Ezra 2:36-39; Neh. 7:39-42; 12:1).
(5.) The son of Rehoboam, whom he succeeded on the throne of Judah (1 Chr. 3:10). He is also called Abijam (1 Kings 14:31; 15:1-8). He began his three years' reign (2 Chr. 12:16; 13:1,2) with a strenuous but unsuccessful effort to bring back the ten tribes to their allegiance. His address to "Jeroboam and all Israel," before encountering them in battle, is worthy of being specially noticed (2 Chr. 13:5-12). It was a very bloody battle, no fewer than 500,000 of the army of Israel having perished on the field. He is described as having walked "in all the sins of his father" (1 Kings 15:3; 2 Chr. 11:20-22). It is said in 1 Kings 15:2 that "his mother's name was Maachah, the daughter of Abishalom;" but in 2 Chr. 13:2 we read, "his mother's name was Michaiah, the daughter of Uriel of Gibeah." The explanation is that Maachah is just a variation of the name Michaiah, and that Abishalom is probably the same as Absalom, the son of David. It is probable that "Uriel of Gibeah" married Tamar, the daughter of Absalom (2 Sam. 14:27), and by her had Maachah. The word "daughter" in 1 Kings 15:2 will thus, as it frequently elsewhere does, mean grand-daughter.
(6.) A son of Jeroboam, the first king of Israel. On account of his severe illness when a youth, his father sent his wife to consult the prophet Ahijah regarding his recovery. The prophet, though blind with old age, knew the wife of Jeroboam as soon as she approached, and under a divine impulse he announced to her that inasmuch as in Abijah alone of all the house of Jeroboam there was found "some good thing toward the Lord," he only would come to his grave in peace. As his mother crossed the threshold of the door on her return, the youth died, and "all Israel mourned for him" (1 Kings 14:1-18).
(7.) The daughter of Zechariah (2 Chr. 29:1; comp. Isa. 8:2), and afterwards the wife of Ahaz. She is also called Abi (2 Kings 18:2).
(8.) One of the sons of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 7:8). "Abiah," A.V.
Abijam - father of the sea; i.e., "seaman" the name always used in Kings of the king of Judah, the son of Rehoboam, elsewhere called Abijah (1 Kings 15:1,7,8). (See ABIJAH.)
(1.) The Philistine king of Gerar in the time of Abraham (Gen. 20:1-18). By an interposition of Providence, Sarah was delivered from his harem, and was restored to her husband Abraham. As a mark of respect he gave to Abraham valuable gifts, and offered him a settlement in any part of his country; while at the same time he delicately and yet severely rebuked him for having practised a deception upon him in pretending that Sarah was only his sister. Among the gifts presented by the king were a thousand pieces of silver as a "covering of the eyes" for Sarah; i.e., either as an atoning gift and a testimony of her innocence in the sight of all, or rather for the purpose of procuring a veil for Sarah to conceal her beauty, and thus as a reproof to her for not having worn a veil which, as a married woman, she ought to have done. A few years after this Abimelech visited Abraham, who had removed southward beyond his territory, and there entered into a league of peace and friendship with him. This league was the first of which we have any record. It was confirmed by a mutual oath at Beer-sheba (Gen. 21:22-34).
(2.) A king of Gerar in the time of Isaac, probably the son of the preceeding (Gen. 26:1-22). Isaac sought refuge in his territory during a famine, and there he acted a part with reference to his wife Rebekah similar to that of his father Abraham with reference to Sarah. Abimelech rebuked him for the deception, which he accidentally discovered. Isaac settled for a while here, and prospered. Abimelech desired him, however, to leave his territory, which Isaac did. Abimelech afterwards visited him when he was encamped at Beer-sheba, and expressed a desire to renew the covenant which had been entered into between their fathers (Gen. 26:26-31).
(3.) A son of Gideon (Judg. 9:1), who was proclaimed king after the death of his father (Judg. 8:33-9:6). One of his first acts was to murder his brothers, seventy in number, "on one stone," at Ophrah. Only one named Jotham escaped. He was an unprincipled, ambitious ruler, often engaged in war with his own subjects. When engaged in reducing the town of Thebez, which had revolted, he was struck mortally on his head by a mill-stone, thrown by the hand of a woman from the wall above. Perceiving that the wound was mortal, he desired his armour-bearer to thrust him through with his sword, that it might not be said he had perished by the hand of a woman (Judg. 9:50-57).
(4.) The son of Abiathar, and high priest in the time of David (1 Chr. 18:16). In the parallel passage, 2 Sam. 8:17, we have the name Ahimelech, and Abiathar, the son of Ahimelech. This most authorities consider the more correct reading.
(5.) Achish, king of Gath, in the title of Ps. 34. (Comp. 1 Sam. 21:10-15.)
Abinadab - father of nobleness; i.e., "noble."
(1.) A Levite of Kirjath-jearim, in whose house the ark of the covenant was deposited after having been brought back from the land of the Philistines (1 Sam. 7:1). It remained there twenty years, till it was at length removed by David (1 Sam. 7:1,2; 1 Chr. 13:7).
(2.) The second of the eight sons of Jesse (1 Sam. 16:8). He was with Saul in the campaign against the Philistines in which Goliath was slain (1 Sam. 17:13).
(3.) One of Saul's sons, who peristed with his father in the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 31:2; 1 Chr. 10:2).
(4.) One of Solomon's officers, who "provided victuals for the king and his household." He presided, for this purpose, over the district of Dor (1 Kings 4:11).
Abinoam - father of kindness, the father of Barak (Judg. 4:6; 5:1).
Abiram - father of height; i.e., "proud."
(1.) One of the sons of Eliab, who joined Korah in the conspiracy against Moses and Aaron. He and all the conspirators, with their families and possessions (except the children of Korah), were swallowed up by an earthquake (Num. 16:1-27; 26:9; Ps. 106:17).
(2.) The eldest son of Hiel the Bethelite, who perished prematurely in consequence of his father's undertaking to rebuild Jericho (1 Kings 16:34), according to the words of Joshua (6:26). (See JERICHO.)
Abishua - father of welfare; i.e., "fortunate."
(1.) The grandson of Benjamin (1 Chr. 8:4).
(2.) The son of Phinehas the high priest (1 Chr. 6:4,5,50; Ezra 7:5).
Abital - father of dew; i.e., "fresh", David's fifth wife (2 Sam. 3:4).
Abitub - father of goodness, a Benjamite (1 Chr. 8:11).
Ablution - or washing, was practised,
(1.) When a person was initiated into a higher state: e.g., when Aaron and his sons were set apart to the priest's office, they were washed with water previous to their investiture with the priestly robes (Lev. 8:6).
(2.) Before the priests approached the altar of God, they were required, on pain of death, to wash their hands and their feet to cleanse them from the soil of common life (Ex. 30:17-21). To this practice the Psalmist alludes, Ps. 26:6.
(3.) There were washings prescribed for the purpose of cleansing from positive defilement contracted by particular acts. Of such washings eleven different species are prescribed in the Levitical law (Lev. 12-15).
(4.) A fourth class of ablutions is mentioned, by which a person purified or absolved himself from the guilt of some particular act. For example, the elders of the nearest village where some murder was committed were required, when the murderer was unknown, to wash their hands over the expiatory heifer which was beheaded, and in doing so to say, "Our hands have not shed this blood, neither have our eyes seen it" (Deut. 21:1-9). So also Pilate declared himself innocent of the blood of Jesus by washing his hands (Matt. 27:24). This act of Pilate may not, however, have been borrowed from the custom of the Jews. The same practice was common among the Greeks and Romans.
The Pharisees carried the practice of ablution to great excess, thereby claiming extraordinary purity (Matt. 23:25). Mark (7:1-5) refers to the ceremonial ablutions. The Pharisees washed their hands "oft," more correctly, "with the fist" (R.V., "diligently"), or as an old father, Theophylact, explains it, "up to the elbow." (Compare also Mark 7:4; Lev. 6:28; 11: 32-36; 15:22) (See WASHING.)
Abner - father
of light; i.e., "enlightening", the son of Ner and uncle of Saul. He
was commander-in-chief of Saul's army (1 Sam. 14:50; 17:55; 20:25). He first
introduced David to the court of Saul after the victory over Goliath (1 Sam.
17:57). After the death of Saul, David was made king over Judah, and reigned in
Hebron. Among the other tribes there was a feeling of hostility to Judah; and
Abner, at the head of Ephraim, fostered this hostility in the interest of the
house of Saul, whose son Ish-bosheth he caused to be proclaimed king (2 Sam.
2:8). A state of war existed between these two kings. A battle fatal to Abner,
who was the leader of Ish-boseth's army, was fought with David's army under
Joab at Gibeon (2 Sam. 2:12). Abner, escaping from the field, was overtaken by
Asahel, who was "light of foot as a wild roe," the brother of Joab
and Abishai, whom he thrust through with a back stroke of his spear (2 Sam. 2:
18-32).
Being rebuked by Ish-bosheth for the impropriety of taking to wife Rizpah, who
had been a concubine of King Saul, he found an excuse for going over to the
side of David, whom he now professed to regard as anointed by the Lord to reign
over all Israel. David received him favourably, and promised that he would have
command of the armies. At this time Joab was absent from Hebron, but on his
return he found what had happened. Abner had just left the city; but Joab by a
stratagem recalled him, and meeting him at the gate of the city on his return,
thrust him through with his sword (2 Sam. 3:27, 31-39; 4:12. Comp. 1 Kings 2:5,
32). David lamented in pathetic words the death of Abner, "Know ye not
that there is a prince and a great man fallen this day in Israel?" (2 Sam.
3:33-38.)
Abomination - This word is used,
(1.) To express the idea that the Egyptians considered themselves as defiled when they ate with strangers (Gen. 43:32). The Jews subsequently followed the same practice, holding it unlawful to eat or drink with foreigners (John 18:28; Acts 10:28; 11:3).
(2.) Every shepherd was "an abomination" unto the Egyptians (Gen. 46:34). This aversion to shepherds, such as the Hebrews, arose probably from the fact that Lower and Middle Egypt had formerly been held in oppressive subjection by a tribe of nomad shepherds (the Hyksos), who had only recently been expelled, and partly also perhaps from this other fact that the Egyptians detested the lawless habits of these wandering shepherds.
(3.) Pharaoh was so moved by the fourth plague, that while he refused the demand of Moses, he offered a compromise, granting to the Israelites permission to hold their festival and offer their sacrifices in Egypt. This permission could not be accepted, because Moses said they would have to sacrifice "the abomination of the Egyptians" (Ex. 8:26); i.e., the cow or ox, which all the Egyptians held as sacred, and which they regarded it as sacrilegious to kill.
(4.) Daniel (11:31), in that section of his prophecies which is generally interpreted as referring to the fearful calamities that were to fall on the Jews in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, says, "And they shall place the abomination that maketh desolate." Antiochus Epiphanes caused an altar to be erected on the altar of burnt-offering, on which sacrifices were offered to Jupiter Olympus. (Comp. 1 Macc. 1:57). This was the abomination of the desolation of Jerusalem. The same language is employed in Dan. 9:27 (comp. Matt. 24:15), where the reference is probably to the image-crowned standards which the Romans set up at the east gate of the temple (A.D. 70), and to which they paid idolatrous honours. "Almost the entire religion of the Roman camp consisted in worshipping the ensign, swearing by the ensign, and in preferring the ensign before all other gods." These ensigns were an "abomination" to the Jews, the "abomination of desolation."
This word is also used symbolically of sin in general (Isa. 66:3); an idol (44:19); the ceremonies of the apostate Church of Rome (Rev. 17:4); a detestable act (Ezek. 22:11).
Abraham - father
of a multitude, son of Terah, named (Gen. 11:27) before his older brothers
Nahor and Haran, because he was the heir of the promises. Till the age of
seventy, Abram sojourned among his kindred in his native country of Chaldea. He
then, with his father and his family and household, quitted the city of Ur, in
which he had hitherto dwelt, and went some 300 miles north to Haran, where he
abode fifteen years. The cause of his migration was a call from God (Acts
7:2-4). There is no mention of this first call in the Old Testament; it is
implied, however, in Gen. 12. While they tarried at Haran, Terah died at the
age of 205 years. Abram now received a second and more definite call,
accompanied by a promise from God (Gen. 12:1,2); whereupon he took his
departure, taking his nephew Lot with him, "not knowing whither he
went" (Heb. 11:8). He trusted implicitly to the guidance of Him who had
called him.
Abram now, with a large household of probably a thousand souls, entered on a
migratory life, and dwelt in tents. Passing along the valley of the Jabbok, in
the land of Canaan, he formed his first encampment at Sichem (Gen. 12:6), in
the vale or oak-grove of Moreh, between Ebal on the north and Gerizim on the
south. Here he received the great promise, "I will make of thee a great
nation," etc. (Gen. 12:2,3,7). This promise comprehended not only temporal
but also spiritual blessings. It implied that he was the chosen ancestor of the
great Deliverer whose coming had been long ago predicted (Gen. 3:15). Soon
after this, for some reason not mentioned, he removed his tent to the mountain
district between Bethel, then called Luz, and Ai, towns about two miles apart,
where he built an altar to "Jehovah." He again moved into the
southern tract of Palestine, called by the Hebrews the Negeb; and was at
length, on account of a famine, compelled to go down into Egypt. This took
place in the time of the Hyksos, a Semitic race which now held the Egyptians in
bondage. Here occurred that case of deception on the part of Abram which
exposed him to the rebuke of Pharaoh (Gen. 12:18). Sarai was restored to him;
and Pharaoh loaded him with presents, recommending him to withdraw from the
country. He returned to Canaan richer than when he left it, "in cattle, in
silver, and in gold" (Gen. 12:8; 13:2. Comp. Ps. 105:13, 14). The whole
party then moved northward, and returned to their previous station near Bethel.
Here disputes arose between Lot's shepherds and those of Abram about water and
pasturage. Abram generously gave Lot his choice of the pasture-ground. (Comp. 1
Cor. 6:7.) He chose the well-watered plain in which Sodom was situated, and
removed thither; and thus the uncle and nephew were separated. Immediately
after this Abram was cheered by a repetition of the promises already made to
him, and then removed to the plain or "oak-grove" of Mamre, which is
in Hebron. He finally settled here, pitching his tent under a famous oak or
terebinth tree, called "the oak of Mamre" (Gen. 13:18). This was his
third resting-place in the land.
Some fourteen years before this, while Abram was still in Chaldea, Palestine
had been invaded by Chedorlaomer, King of Elam, who brought under tribute to
him the five cities in the plain to which Lot had removed. This tribute was
felt by the inhabitants of these cities to be a heavy burden, and after twelve
years they revolted. This brought upon them the vengeance of Chedorlaomer, who
had in league with him four other kings. He ravaged the whole country,
plundering the towns, and carrying the inhabitants away as slaves. Among those
thus treated was Lot. Hearing of the disaster that had fallen on his nephew,
Abram immediately gathered from his own household a band of 318 armed men, and
being joined by the Amoritish chiefs Mamre, Aner, and Eshcol, he pursued after
Chedorlaomer, and overtook him near the springs of the Jordan. They attacked
and routed his army, and pursued it over the range of Anti-Libanus as far as to
Hobah, near Damascus, and then returned, bringing back all the spoils that had
been carried away. Returning by way of Salem, i.e., Jerusalem, the king of that
place, Melchizedek, came forth to meet them with refreshments. To him Abram
presented a tenth of the spoils, in recognition of his character as a priest of
the most high God (Gen. 14:18-20).
In a recently-discovered tablet, dated in the reign of the grandfather of
Amraphel (Gen. 14:1), one of the witnesses is called "the Amorite, the son
of Abiramu," or Abram.
Having returned to his home at Mamre, the promises already made to him by God
were repeated and enlarged (Gen. 13:14). "The word of the Lord" (an
expression occurring here for the first time) "came to him" (15:1).
He now understood better the future that lay before the nation that was to
spring from him. Sarai, now seventy-five years old, in her impatience,
persuaded Abram to take Hagar, her Egyptian maid, as a concubine, intending
that whatever child might be born should be reckoned as her own. Ishmael was
accordingly thus brought up, and was regarded as the heir of these promises
(Gen. 16). When Ishmael was thirteen years old, God again revealed yet more
explicitly and fully his gracious purpose; and in token of the sure fulfilment
of that purpose the patriarch's name was now changed from Abram to Abraham
(Gen. 17:4,5), and the rite of circumcision was instituted as a sign of the
covenant. It was then announced that the heir to these covenant promises would
be the son of Sarai, though she was now ninety years old; and it was directed
that his name should be Isaac. At the same time, in commemoration of the
promises, Sarai's name was changed to Sarah. On that memorable day of God's
thus revealing his design, Abraham and his son Ishmael and all the males of his
house were circumcised (Gen. 17). Three months after this, as Abraham sat in
his tent door, he saw three men approaching. They accepted his proffered
hospitality, and, seated under an oak-tree, partook of the fare which Abraham
and Sarah provided. One of the three visitants was none other than the Lord,
and the other two were angels in the guise of men. The Lord renewed on this
occasion his promise of a son by Sarah, who was rebuked for her unbelief.
Abraham accompanied the three as they proceeded on their journey. The two
angels went on toward Sodom; while the Lord tarried behind and talked with
Abraham, making known to him the destruction that was about to fall on that
guilty city. The patriarch interceded earnestly in behalf of the doomed city.
But as not even ten righteous persons were found in it, for whose sake the city
would have been spared, the threatened destruction fell upon it; and early next
morning Abraham saw the smoke of the fire that consumed it as the "smoke
of a furnace" (Gen. 19:1-28).
After fifteen years' residence at Mamre, Abraham moved southward, and pitched
his tent among the Philistines, near to Gerar. Here occurred that sad instance
of prevarication on his part in his relation to Abimelech the King (Gen. 20).
(See ABIMELECH.) Soon after this event,
the patriarch left the vicinity of Gerar, and moved down the fertile valley
about 25 miles to Beer-sheba. It was probably here that Isaac was born, Abraham
being now an hundred years old. A feeling of jealousy now arose between Sarah
and Hagar, whose son, Ishmael, was no longer to be regarded as Abraham's heir.
Sarah insisted that both Hagar and her son should be sent away. This was done,
although it was a hard trial to Abraham (Gen. 21:12). (See HAGAR; ISHMAEL.)
At this point there is a blank in the patriarch's history of perhaps
twenty-five years. These years of peace and happiness were spent at Beer-sheba.
The next time we see him his faith is put to a severe test by the command that
suddenly came to him to go and offer up Isaac, the heir of all the promises, as
a sacrifice on one of the mountains of Moriah. His faith stood the test (Heb.
11:17-19). He proceeded in a spirit of unhesitating obedience to carry out the
command; and when about to slay his son, whom he had laid on the altar, his
uplifted hand was arrested by the angel of Jehovah, and a ram, which was
entangled in a thicket near at hand, was seized and offered in his stead. From
this circumstance that place was called Jehovah-jireh, i.e., "The Lord will
provide." The promises made to Abraham were again confirmed (and this was
the last recorded word of God to the patriarch); and he descended the mount
with his son, and returned to his home at Beer-sheba (Gen. 22:19), where he
resided for some years, and then moved northward to Hebron.
Some years after this Sarah died at Hebron, being 127 years old. Abraham
acquired now the needful possession of a burying-place, the cave of Machpelah,
by purchase from the owner of it, Ephron the Hittite (Gen. 23); and there he
buried Sarah. His next care was to provide a wife for Isaac, and for this
purpose he sent his steward, Eliezer, to Haran (or Charran, Acts 7:2), where
his brother Nahor and his family resided (Gen. 11:31). The result was that
Rebekah, the daughter of Nahor's son Bethuel, became the wife of Isaac (Gen.
24). Abraham then himself took to wife Keturah, who became the mother of six
sons, whose descendants were afterwards known as the "children of the
east" (Judg. 6:3), and later as "Saracens." At length all his
wanderings came to an end. At the age of 175 years, 100 years after he had
first entered the land of Canaan, he died, and was buried in the old family
burying-place at Machpelah (Gen. 25:7-10).
The history of Abraham made a wide and deep impression on the ancient world,
and references to it are interwoven in the religious traditions of almost all
Eastern nations. He is called "the friend of God" (James 2:23),
"faithful Abraham" (Gal. 3:9), "the father of us all" (Rom.
4:16).
Abraham's bosom - (Luke 16:22,23) refers to the custom of reclining on couches at table, which was prevalent among the Jews, an arrangement which brought the head of one person almost into the bosom of the one who sat or reclined above him. To "be in Abraham's bosom" thus meant to enjoy happiness and rest (Matt. 8:11; Luke 16:23) at the banquet in Paradise. (See BANQUET, MEALS.)
Abram - exalted father. (see ABRAHAM.)
Absalom - father
of peace; i.e., "peaceful" David's son by Maacah (2 Sam. 3:3; comp. 1
Kings 1:6). He was noted for his personal beauty and for the extra-ordinary
profusion of the hair of his head (2 Sam. 14:25,26). The first public act of
his life was the blood-revenge he executed against Amnon, David's eldest son,
who had basely wronged Absalom's sister Tamar. This revenge was executed at the
time of the festivities connected with a great sheep-shearing at Baal-hazor.
David's other sons fled from the place in horror, and brought the tidings of
the death of Amnon to Jerusalem. Alarmed for the consequences of the act, Absalom
fled to his grandfather at Geshur, and there abode for three years (2 Sam. 3:3;
13:23-38).
David mourned his absent son, now branded with the guilt of fratricide. As the
result of a stratagem carried out by a woman of Tekoah, Joab received David's sanction
to invite Absalom back to Jerusalem. He returned accordingly, but two years
elapsed before his father admitted him into his presence (2 Sam. 14:28).
Absalom was now probably the oldest surviving son of David, and as he was of
royal descent by his mother as well as by his father, he began to aspire to the
throne. His pretensions were favoured by the people. By many arts he gained
their affection; and after his return from Geshur (2 Sam. 15:7; marg., R.V.) he
went up to Hebron, the old capital of Judah, along with a great body of the
people, and there proclaimed himself king. The revolt was so successful that
David found it necessary to quit Jerusalem and flee to Mahanaim, beyond Jordan;
where upon Absalom returned to Jerusalem and took possession of the throne
without opposition. Ahithophel, who had been David's chief counsellor, deserted
him and joined Absalom, whose chief counsellor he now became. Hushai also
joined Absalom, but only for the purpose of trying to counteract the counsels
of Ahithophel, and so to advantage David's cause. He was so far successful that
by his advice, which was preferred to that of Ahithophel, Absalom delayed to
march an army against his father, who thus gained time to prepare for the
defence.
Absalom at length marched out against his father, whose army, under the command
of Joab, he encountered on the borders of the forest of Ephraim. Twenty
thousand of Absalom's army were slain in that fatal battle, and the rest fled.
Absalom fled on a swift mule; but his long flowing hair, or more probably his
head, was caught in the bough of an oak, and there he was left suspended till
Joab came up and pierced him through with three darts. His body was then taken
down and cast into a pit dug in the forest, and a heap of stones was raised
over his grave. When the tidings of the result of that battle were brought to
David, as he sat impatiently at the gate of Mahanaim, and he was told that
Absalom had been slain, he gave way to the bitter lamentation: "O my son
Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my
son, my son!" (2 Sam. 18:33. Comp. Ex. 32:32; Rom. 9:3).
Absalom's three sons (2 Sam. 14:27; comp. 18:18) had all died before him, so
that he left only a daughter, Tamar, who became the grandmother of Abijah.
Accad - the
high land or mountains, a city in the land of Shinar. It has been identified
with the mounds of Akker Kuf, some 50 miles to the north of Babylon; but this
is doubtful. It was one of the cities of Nimrod's kingdom (Ge 10:10). It stood
close to the Euphrates, opposite Sippara. (See SEPHARVAIM.)
It is also the name of the country of which this city was the capital, namely,
northern or upper Babylonia. The Accadians who came from the "mountains of
the east," where the ark rested, attained to a high degree of
civilization. In the Babylonian inscriptions they are called "the black
heads" and "the black faces," in contrast to "the white
race" of Semitic descent. They invented the form of writing in pictorial
hieroglyphics, and also the cuneiform system, in which they wrote many books
partly on papyrus and partly on clay. The Semitic Babylonians ("the white
race"), or, as some scholars think, first the Cushites, and afterwards, as
a second immigration, the Semites, invaded and conquered this country; and then
the Accadian language ceased to be a spoken language, although for the sake of
its literary treasures it continued to be studied by the educated classes of
Babylonia. A large portion of the Ninevite tablets brought to light by Oriental
research consists of interlinear or parallel translations from Accadian into
Assyrian; and thus that long-forgotten language has been recovered by scholars.
It belongs to the class of languages called agglutinative, common to the
Tauranian race; i.e., it consists of words "glued together," without
declension of conjugation. These tablets in a remarkable manner illustrate
ancient history. Among other notable records, they contain an account of the
Creation which closely resembles that given in the book of Genesis, of the
Sabbath as a day of rest, and of the Deluge and its cause. (See BABYLON; CHALDEA.)
(1.) An Edomitish king (Gen. 36:38; 1 Chr. 1:49).
(2.) One of Josiah's officers sent to the prophetess Huldah to inquire regarding the newly-discovered book of the law (2 Kings 22:12, 14). He is also called Abdon (2 Chr. 34:20).
(1.) A town in the Shephelah, or plain country of Judah (Josh. 15:44); probably the same as Chezib of Gen. 38:5 = Ain Kezbeh.
(2.) A Phoenician city (the Gr. Ecdippa), always retained in their possession though assigned to the tribe of Asher (Josh. 19:29; Judg. 1:31). It is identified with the modern es-Zib, on the Mediterranean, about 8 miles north of Accho.
Acts of the
Apostles - the title now given to the fifth and last of the historical
books of the New Testament. The author styles it a "treatise" (1:1).
It was early called "The Acts," "The Gospel of the Holy
Ghost," and "The Gospel of the Resurrection." It contains
properly no account of any of the apostles except Peter and Paul. John is
noticed only three times; and all that is recorded of James, the son of
Zebedee, is his execution by Herod. It is properly therefore not the history of
the "Acts of the Apostles," a title which was given to the book at a
later date, but of "Acts of Apostles," or more correctly, of
"Some Acts of Certain Apostles."
As regards its authorship, it was certainly the work of Luke, the "beloved
physician" (comp. Luke 1:1-4; Acts 1:1). This is the uniform tradition of
antiquity, although the writer nowhere makes mention of himself by name. The
style and idiom of the Gospel of Luke and of the Acts, and the usage of words
and phrases common to both, strengthen this opinion. The writer first appears
in the narrative in 16:11, and then disappears till Paul's return to Philippi
two years afterwards, when he and Paul left that place together (20:6), and the
two seem henceforth to have been constant companions to the end. He was
certainly with Paul at Rome (28; Col. 4:14). Thus he wrote a great portion of
that history from personal observation. For what lay beyond his own experience
he had the instruction of Paul. If, as is very probable, 2 Tim. was written
during Paul's second imprisonment at Rome, Luke was with him then as his
faithful companion to the last (2 Tim. 4:11). Of his subsequent history we have
no certain information.
The design of Luke's Gospel was to give an exhibition of the character and work
of Christ as seen in his history till he was taken up from his disciples into
heaven; and of the Acts, as its sequel, to give an illustration of the power
and working of the gospel when preached among all nations, "beginning at
Jerusalem." The opening sentences of the Acts are just an expansion and an
explanation of the closing words of the Gospel. In this book we have just a
continuation of the history of the church after Christ's ascension. Luke here
carries on the history in the same spirit in which he had commenced it. It is
only a book of beginnings, a history of the founding of churches, the initial
steps in the formation of the Christian society in the different places visited
by the apostles. It records a cycle of "representative events."
All through the narrative we see the ever-present, all-controlling power of the
ever-living Saviour. He worketh all and in all in spreading abroad his truth
among men by his Spirit and through the instrumentality of his apostles.
The time of the writing of this history may be gathered from the fact that the
narrative extends down to the close of the second year of Paul's first
imprisonment at Rome. It could not therefore have been written earlier than
A.D. 61 or 62, nor later than about the end of A.D. 63. Paul was probably put
to death during his second imprisonment, about A.D. 64, or, as some think, 66.
The place where the book was written was probably Rome, to which Luke
accompanied Paul.
The key to the contents of the book is in 1:8, "Ye shall be witnesses unto
me both in Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the uttermost
part of the earth." After referring to what had been recorded in a
"former treatise" of the sayings and doings of Jesus Christ before
his ascension, the author proceeds to give an account of the circumstances
connected with that event, and then records the leading facts with reference to
the spread and triumphs of Christianity over the world during a period of about
thirty years. The record begins with Pentecost (A.D. 33) and ends with Paul's
first imprisonment (A.D. 63 or 64). The whole contents of the book may be
divided into these three parts:
(1.) Chaps. 1-12, describing the first twelve years of the Christian church. This section has been entitled "From Jerusalem to Antioch." It contains the history of the planting and extension of the church among the Jews by the ministry of Peter.
(2.) Chaps. 13-21, Paul's missionary journeys, giving the history of the extension and planting of the church among the Gentiles.
(3.) Chaps. 21-28, Paul at Rome,
and the events which led to this. Chaps. 13-28 have been entitled "From
Antioch to Rome."
In this book it is worthy of note that no mention is made of the writing by
Paul of any of his epistles. This may be accounted for by the fact that the
writer confined himself to a history of the planting of the church, and not to
that of its training or edification. The relation, however, between this
history and the epistles of Paul is of such a kind, i.e., brings to light so
many undesigned coincidences, as to prove the genuineness and authenticity of both,
as is so ably shown by Paley in his Horae Paulinae. "No ancient
work affords so many tests of veracity; for no other has such numerous points
of contact in all directions with contemporary history, politics, and
topography, whether Jewish, or Greek, or Roman." Lightfoot. (See PAUL.)
(1.) The first of Lamech's two wives, and the mother of Jabal and Jubal (Gen. 4:19, 20, 23).
(2.) The first of Esau's three wives, the daughter of Elon the Hittite (Gen. 36:2,4), called also Bashemath (26:34).
Adam - red,
a Babylonian word, the generic name for man, having the same meaning in the
Hebrew and the Assyrian languages. It was the name given to the first man,
whose creation, fall, and subsequent history and that of his descendants are
detailed in the first book of Moses (Gen. 1:27-ch. 5). "God created man
[Heb., Adam] in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and
female created he them."
Adam was absolutely the first man whom God created. He was formed out of the
dust of the earth (and hence his name), and God breathed into his nostrils the
breath of life, and gave him dominion over all the lower creatures (Gen. 1:26;
2:7). He was placed after his creation in the Garden of Eden, to cultivate it,
and to enjoy its fruits under this one prohibition: "Of the tree of the
knowledge of good and evil thou shalt not eat of it; for in the day that thou
eatest thereof thou shalt surely die."
The first recorded act of Adam was his giving names to the beasts of the field
and the fowls of the air, which God brought to him for this end. Thereafter the
Lord caused a deep sleep to fall upon him, and while in an unconscious state
took one of his ribs, and closed up his flesh again; and of this rib he made a
woman, whom he presented to him when he awoke. Adam received her as his wife,
and said, "This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall
be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man." He called her Eve,
because she was the mother of all living.
Being induced by the tempter in the form of a serpent to eat the forbidden
fruit, Eve persuaded Adam, and he also did eat. Thus man fell, and brought upon
himself and his posterity all the sad consequences of his transgression. The
narrative of the Fall comprehends in it the great promise of a Deliverer (Gen.
3:15), the "first gospel" message to man. They were expelled from
Eden, and at the east of the garden God placed a flame, which turned every way,
to prevent access to the tree of life (Gen. 3). How long they were in Paradise
is matter of mere conjecture.
Shortly after their expulsion Eve brought forth her first-born, and called him
Cain. Although we have the names of only three of Adam's sons, viz., Cain,
Abel, and Seth, yet it is obvious that he had several sons and daughters (Gen.
5:4). He died aged 930 years.
Adam and Eve were the progenitors of the whole human race. Evidences of varied
kinds are abundant in proving the unity of the human race. The investigations
of science, altogether independent of historical evidence, lead to the
conclusion that God "hath made of one blood all nations of men for to
dwell on all the face of the earth" (Acts 17:26. Comp. Rom. 5:12-12; 1
Cor. 15:22-49).
Addar - ample, splendid, son of Bela (1 Chr. 8:3); called also "Ard" (Gen. 46:21)
Adder - (Ps. 140:3; Rom. 3:13, "asp") is the rendering of,
(1.) Akshub ("coiling" or "lying in wait"), properly an asp or viper, found only in this passage.
(2.) Pethen ("twisting"), a viper or venomous serpent identified with the cobra (Naja haje) (Ps. 58:4; 91:13); elsewhere "asp."
(3.) Tziphoni ("hissing") (Prov. 23:32); elsewhere rendered "cockatrice," Isa. 11:8; 14:29; 59:5; Jer. 8:17, as it is here in the margin of the Authorized Version. The Revised Version has "basilisk." This may have been the yellow viper, the Daboia xanthina, the largest and most dangerous of the vipers of Palestine.
(4.) Shephiphon ("creeping"), occurring only in Gen. 49:17, the small speckled venomous snake, the "horned snake," or cerastes. Dan is compared to this serpent, which springs from its hiding-place on the passer-by.
(1.)The father of Azmaveth, who was treasurer under David and Solomon (1 Chr. 27:25).
(2.) A family head of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chr. 4:36).
(3.) A priest (1 Chr. 9:12).
(1.) Ezra 8:6.
(2.) Neh. 10:16.
Adina - slender, one of David's warriors (1 Chr. 11:42), a Reubenite.
Adino - the Eznite, one of David's mighty men (2 Sam. 23:8). (See JASHOBEAM.)
Adjuration - a
solemn appeal whereby one person imposes on another the obligation of speaking
or acting as if under an oath (1 Sam. 14:24; Josh. 6:26; 1 Kings 22:16).
We have in the New Testament a striking example of this (Matt. 26:63; Mark
5:7), where the high priest calls upon Christ to avow his true character. It
would seem that in such a case the person so adjured could not refuse to give
an answer.
The word "adjure", i.e., cause to swear is used with reference to the
casting out of demons (Acts 19:13).
Admah - earth, one of the five cities of the vale of Siddim (Gen. 10:19). It was destroyed along with Sodom and Gomorrah (19:24; Deut. 29:23). It is supposed by some to be the same as the Adam of Josh. 3:16, the name of which still lingers in Damieh, the ford of Jordan. (See ZEBOIM.)
(1.) A chief of the tribe of Manasseh who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. 12:20).
(2.) A general under Jehoshaphat, chief over 300,000 men (2 Chr. 17:14).
Adonijah - my Lord is Jehovah.
(1.) The fourth son of David (2 Sam. 3:4). After the death of his elder brothers, Amnon and Absalom, he became heir-apparent to the throne. But Solomon, a younger brother, was preferred to him. Adonijah, however, when his father was dying, caused himself to be proclaimed king. But Nathan and Bathsheba induced David to give orders that Solomon should at once be proclaimed and admitted to the throne. Adonijah fled and took refuge at the altar, and received pardon for his conduct from Solomon on the condition that he showed himself "a worthy man" (1 Kings 1:5-53). He afterwards made a second attempt to gain the throne, but was seized and put to death (1 Kings 2:13-25).
(2.) A Levite sent with the princes to teach the book of the law to the inhabitants of Judah (2 Chr. 17:8).
(3.) One of the "chiefs of the people" after the Captivity (Neh. 10:16).
Adoni-zedec - lord of justice or righteousness, was king in Jerusalem at the time when the Israelites invaded Palestine (Josh. 10:1,3). He formed a confederacy with the other Canaanitish kings against the Israelites, but was utterly routed by Joshua when he was engaged in besieging the Gibeonites. The history of this victory and of the treatment of the five confederated kings is recorded in Josh. 10:1-27. (Comp. Deut. 21:23). Among the Tell Amarna tablets (see EGYPT) are some very interesting letters from Adoni-zedec to the King of Egypt. These illustrate in a very remarkable manner the history recorded in Josh. 10, and indeed throw light on the wars of conquest generally, so that they may be read as a kind of commentary on the book of Joshua. Here the conquering career of the Abiri (i.e., Hebrews) is graphically described: "Behold, I say that the land of the king my lord is ruined", "The wars are mighty against me", "The Hebrew chiefs plunder all the king's lands", "Behold, I the chief of the Amorites am breaking to pieces." Then he implores the king of Egypt to send soldiers to help him, directing that the army should come by sea to Ascalon or Gaza, and thence march to Wru-sa-lim (Jerusalem) by the valley of Elah.
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